Writing readable papers: How to tell a good story
Rosemary J. Mackay
Reprinted from Bulletin of the North American Benthological Society 12(3): 381-388;
1995.
[The following article is a modified version of the presentation I gave at the 1995
NABS Annual Meeting when I was honoured with the NABS Award of Excellence. I originally
prepared it as a talk. In revising for publication, I have tried to retain the flavour of
the way I hoped to appeal to the audience. Thus this paper should not be seen as the
definitive guide to good writing, but only as one person's view of a persuasive style]
The meeting at Keystone was the 10th anniversary of J-NABS. We gave our journal its
name at the 1985 NABS meeting in Corvallis, Oregon. And at that same meeting, I was handed
the first manuscript for review.
At that time, I knew as much about writing and editing as many of you who are reading
this article. I had written a reasonable number of papers and had reviewed for several
journals and granting agencies. I had been an Associate Editor for another journal for
five years. Perhaps I had a slightly better knowledge of the conventions and rules of our
language, because I taught English grammar when I was a highschool teacher in Winnipeg
much earlier in my career; but otherwise my qualifications were not remarkable.
Now, 10 years later, I have been honoured with an Award, which I shall treasure as
recognition of my achievements as an editor. I have learned a great deal during my
editorship. While J-NABS has been developing, so have I. In this article, I want to share
some of the discoveries I have made while editing, and to outline some essential
First, I want to be sure that you do not misunderstand the word "story" in
the title. I am not referring to a lie, or an attempt to cover up weak science with
cunning prose. Instead, I mean "story" in the sense of an absorbing account of a
piece of work that carries the reader along, so that we are sorry when we come to the end
of the paper. We are convinced of the relevance and worth of the research, and we are
excited about its implications. The thread is coherent and consistent.
How do we learn to write in this way? A few fortunates were well taught when teenagers,
but most of us (myself included) had to learn when we were older. In fact, I am still
learning, and the following guides are my constant companions.
The elements of style. W. Strunk and E. B. White. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York.
1979
This book is the best small guide anyone can buy. It costs about $5, is smaller than a
standard paperback, and is only 90 odd pages long. Yet it has more gems of advice per page
than any other. Everyone should have it.
A treasury for word lovers. M. S. Freeman. ISI Press, Philadelphia. 1983
I bought this Treasury before I became Editor of J-NABS, and have enjoyed it so much
that I almost entitled this article "A love affair with words". It deals mainly
with problem words, especially pairs of words that look or sound similar but have
different meanings, such as "alternate" and "alternative",
"compose" and "comprise", "imply" and "infer".
The Columbia guide to standard American English. K. G. Wilson. Columbia University
Press, New York, 1993.
I refer to this book to make sure I do not offend Americans. Because I was born in
England and still have an English accent, many people who hear me speak at NABS meetings
suspect that I want English English in J-NABS. Not so! All the books I am recommending
were written by Americans, as was the highschool text that I used in Winnipeg, which
taught me the rules. This book is helpful because it makes the nice distinction between
Standard English and Edited English. The latter, which may seem more English than
American, should be used for scientific papers.
Scientific style and format: the CBE Manual for authors, editors and publishers. 6th
edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 1994.
This edition of a well-known American manual was prepared by a committee including
Canadians and Americans. It is the best reference for technical aspects of writing,
including the appropriate style for symbols, abbreviations, and specialized terms such as
those for biochemical and genetic aspects of benthology.
The new Oxford guide to writing. T. S. Kane. Oxford University Press, New York. 1988.
Now we come to the "good story" part of my title. This book, also American in
spite of its title, has helped me not only to write better myself but also to be aware of
the ingredients of a good story.
The abilty to tell a good story is essential in these days of increasing literature and
increasing demands on our time. Unless we write in a way that grabs attention and
enthralls the reader, we won't have any readers at all. Wordy prose and stodgy rhythm will
put readers off after a few paragraphs. Don't destroy several months or years of
worthwhile research with an unreadable product!
Let me reiterate what I mean by a good story. Four words are enough: enticing,
captivating, persuasive, and stimulating. These words will elicit different responses from
different people, but I suggest the following with respect to a paper in a journal:
Enticing:"Hey-this looks neat"
Captivating:"I can't put this down"
Persuasive:"This is for real"
Stimulating:"Wow!"
The stimulating aspect does not have to be "Wow"; but when you write, you
should definitely leave your readers with a sense of having gained some worthwhile facts
or interpretations.
The four phrases in quotes are deliberately colloquial to attract attention. They also
have another characteristic in common: all 14 words (in total) are of one syllable.
Colloquial wording is, of course, inappropriate for scientific writing. Simple words,
however, often convey a message more effectively than long ones. They also result in a
shorter paper which will be less intimidating to readers short of time.
The long words I see most often, and the changes I make when editing, are as follows:
Long Short Comments
Exhibited Showed,had The shorter words are sufficient to describe
characteristics or behaviour
Indicated Showed,suggested The long word is ambiguous, whereas the
short words have specific meanings
Located This word is usually not needed at all
Majority Most Note that if "majority" is essential, it should
refer only to countable items
Methodology Methods "Methodology" is rarely meant
Utilize Use The long word just sounds impressive
Utilization Use Ditto
To achieve a readable style, you have to develop a sense of what sounds right. One way
to do this is to read. Read anything but scientific papers and newspapers. Yes, rather few
scientific papers are good models. Even J-NABS in not perfect, because believe it or not,
I do allow readers to retain most of their style. Read fiction. Include books by good
modern writers as well as the more serious classics. You will gradually absorb a sense of
when rules can be broken. An incomplete sentence is, on occasion, an effective punch;
improperly used, it is bad grammar.
Punctuation, when understood with sensitivity, leads to riffles and pools of narrative
flow. Yes, I'm deliberately playing on the theme of streams, because we all know that
streams flow irregularly. The fast and slow reaches are part of their fascination. In
writing, riffles are forceful points of the narrative and longsentence runs. Pools are
short sentences. Pools are breaks in the flow of words, sometimes providing a welcome
interruption in a spate of ideas. Clarification results as ideas settle.
I have learned a lot by reading fiction. I read books for relaxation and for the story,
although I will admit that I am rarely able to ignore structural style, and some authors
make me itch to edit. Indeed, I wonder how some socalled editors in the novelpublishing
business were ever hired. My favourite thriller writer has a superbly lean style. He uses
simple words and frequent short sentences that create a fast pace. His opening sentence is
always captivating. I am caught up in the story because his style invites involvement.
I am not suggesting that we should all mimic the thriller writer. That style is
absolutely inappropriate for scientific writing. I do, however, encourage you to explore
the art of writing. When you realise you have enjoyed a story or an article, ask yourself:
Why have I enjoyed reading this paper? What absorbed me? What made it easy to read? Then
sit down and plan your own paper, asking first: For whom am I writing this paper? Why
should they be interested? What key points will they gather? How will they apply the
information?
Instead of concentrating on how quickly you can get a paper out of your word processor,
think about the person you are "talking to". You should plan to appeal to the
reader, not to a promotion committee or a granting agency. Forget about how good this
paper will look on your CV; forget about being impressive. Think about readers like you.
How should you set out to write a paper? Everyone has a favourite place where they
compose, a particular mood, and various levels of orderliness or relaxation. I remember
mentally wording the opening of my first paper, based on part of my Master's thesis, when
I was climbing Mount Washington in New Hampshire. More recently, I seem to have more
success when I've had a drink or two. When I've dropped a few inhibitions and have stopped
worrying about the perfect prose, the words seen to come to mind more easily and the story
flows along.
Don't strive to write a paper. Write your thoughts first; correct the style later.
Concentrate on the story and make sure you don't lose the thread as you go along. Imagine
you are explaining what you did-and why-to a friend who is a scientist. If your friend
were to say "What do you mean?", you would rephrase your account more simply.
Use those simple phrases!
Keep in mind your sense of excitement when you undertook the research. I'd rather read
a paper with verve than one written meticulously with respect to syntax. Even editors need
to be stimulated. Don't be so scientific and impersonal that your paper has no heart, no
spark. Use the first person and the active voice frequently. You may have been taught that
scientific work should be reported in the third person. You must, of course, report
objectively, but this concern does not mean that you have to distance yourself so far from
the work that you lose sight of the thrill of the hunt. If you do, so will your readers.
Readers need to empathise. They need to see in their minds what you did, and where, and
why. Even multiauthored papers can afford to stretch the truth a little and say "We
did......", although every individual may not have been involved in that particular
aspect. Give the paper a single soul.
If some of you reading this paper are now saying "But science should not be
written like that", my reply is "Why not?" We need to be encouraged to keep
up with the literature in even our own specialty, let alone broader topics that we know we
should explore but don't, because we lack time and concentration. We have to find a
solution; hence my proposals. I am not recommending chattiness, just more natural
reporting.
To illustrate the style I would like to see, I have chosen a topic (just my
imagination, not based on fact) that I hope will appeal to the diverse benthological
interests of my readers. First, I show three titles. Which one to use depends on the
thrust of the paper and the particular audience you are trying to reach.
1) The number of setae on the posterolateral larval integument of Cricotopus species
(Diptera: Chironomidae)
This title is appropriate for specialists in taxonomy and systematics. It describes
concisely the content of the paper, and makes no attempt to look beyond this description.
2) Using setae of Cricotopus larvae (Diptera: Chironomidae) to identify species
differing in pollution tolerance
Here, the author is implying a purpose in the paper beyond the simple description.
There is nothing wrong with this title, but it could be more persuasive.
3) Setae on Cricotopus (chironomid) larvae: a taxonomic tool for biomonitoring
I think this title would appeal to applied benthologists who might not be attracted by
title #2. The words are simpler (note the anglicized name of the family) and the message
is clear.
Next, I shall illustrate an imaginary introduction. This section is the part of the
paper most likely, after the title, to win or lose readers. Don't burden the introduction
with dozens of references. Sometimes, the many citations make us wonder why another paper
is necessary at all! If you are extracting a chapter from a thesis or dissertation,
remember that you are no longer having to prove yourself to examiners. In the academic
document, evidence that you have consulted an appropriate body of literature is an
essential part of the qualifying process. In a paper, however, you need only provide the
right setting for your own work, with particular emphasis on the hole in our knowledge
that you are going to fill.
Here is a concise introduction-the background and objective in a nutshell.
Our inability to identify chironomid larvae to species has hampered pollution
assessment for 70 years [two or three key references]. My paper describes easily seen
features of Cricotopus species that will make biomonitoring cheaper and more effective.
Now I will show you a series of alternatives, sentence by sentence, which collectively
are providing the same introductory purpose and leading to the same objective, but the
first alternative is longwinded and the second paraphrases the first in simpler words.
Long: There have been many environmental impact assessment studies that have enumerated
particular macroinvertabrates for the purpose of revealing the severity of pollution. [A
string of references]
Short: The severity of environmental pollutants is often judged according to numbers of
particular macroinvertebrates. [A few references]
Use "There are/were/have been...." phrases sparingly; a strong subject (the
real one) is usually far more effective. Notice how the short version has fewer pompous
words and less jargon. I continue:
Long: A number of authors have found that there are significant differences among
chironomid species with regard to impact tolerance. [A string of references]
Short: Species of chironomids differ significantly in their tolerance of pollution. [A
few references]
The short sentence has almost half the number of words as the long sentence, and avoids
the vague "a number of" (better words would be "several" or
"some"), as well as other unnecessary words.
Long: It is well known that impaired sites often support more chironomid individuals
than pristine sites.
Short: Chironomid density is often higher at polluted sites than at clean sites.
If the fact is so well known, why say it? At least remove the "It is well
known" phrase. Also avoid words like "support" (which seems to reflect some
authors' reluctance to use a simple word like "have") and "pristine"
(which is often used to describe an apparently undisturbed site, although the true
pristine condition may be unknown).
Long: This has been incorporated into water resource quality management decision making
programs.
Short: This distinction is used to assess and manage water quality.
Note that "this" has been defined and that the long final phrase (which, with
its many noun adjectives, I have actually seen in print) has been reworded in
understandable terms.
Long: However, it has been shown that identification to species is not cost effective
in routine biomonitoring programs.
Short: Identifying these species, however, has been too expensive for routine
biomonitoring.
My editing in this case has not greatly changed the length, but it has replaced some
jargon words (cost effective, programs) with the truth!
Long: In order to address this problem, a new methodology was utilized to reveal setal
characteristics exhibited by larval Chironomidae.
Short: To find a solution, I used a new stain for chironomid setae.
My wording is shorter, avoids the unnecessary "in order...", and substitutes
simpler and definitive words for the second half of the sentence.
Long: The procedure described in this paper will facilitate laboratory processing and
render biomonitoring procedures more effective.
Short: Easier detection of identifying setae will make biomonitoring cheaper and more
effective.
The second sentence describes the potential of the method in more direct terms.
The examples above show how the Introduction to my imaginary paper could be made
clearer as well as shorter. Even the shorter form, however, has seven sentences, whereas
my original concise Introduction had only two. Admittedly, the concise form was extremely
brief and might be criticized by readers who are used to seeing more background material.
You have to decide how brief you could be while still preparing readers adequately for
your story. In any case, I hope you have got the message.
Remember that your data are only worth anything if people read about them, realise what
they mean, and want to build on them. If you cannot retain a reader's interest long enough
for those data to be appreciated, the paper and data will die.
When you have written a captivating and persuasive paper, don't neglect the final steps
in the preparation of a manuscript. Always read it over to check for errors, and don't
depend on a spell checker. The most blatant example of neglect that I remember was by an
author who overlooked the spell checker's substitution of "liable" for
"labile" (the spell checker did not recognize "labile"). As his paper
focused on labile carbon in a stream ecosystem, this error caused the referees some
amusement, but also some concern for the author's attention to detail. One referee pointed
out that the author was liable for considerable criticism, showing her exasperation. The
editors were also exasperated; we are, after all, only human.
And because we are only human, we sometimes make mistakes ourselves. I am ready to
admit that I myself have exasperated many of my authors. I hope I have not put too many of
you off, even if some of you have said "Don't send your treasured paper to J-NABS;
Rosemary will scribble all over it". I also know that I don't have all the answers.
So I do not advise you to tell a colleague: "Send your troublesome paper to J-NABS;
Rosemary will rewrite it for you". Such a hope is wishful thinking!
To finish, I thank all authors who have written the papers that have made J-NABS a
success, and the referees and Associate Editors who ensured high quality. Thank you all
for your contributions to our science.
Webmaster's note: The Bulletin editor transmitted this document in WordPerfect format,
and I changed it into HTML. That means that I had to reintroduce certain stylistic
formatting, such as bold and italic fonts. I believe this text now matches the version
printed in the Bulletin. Any differences, other than page layout, are my inadvertent
oversights.
|
